Untuk Sister dillah

Coelenterata
Submitted by Wesley R. Elsberry on Sat, 2006-06-10 17:11. http://www.onlinezoologists.com/cs/coelenterata
The Phylum Coelenterata or Cnidaria contains tentaculate animals that have primarily radial or biradial symmetry, a digestive tract with only one opening, the mouth, and possess a unique organelle, the nematocyst. These animals have cells that are differentiated into well-defined tissues derived from either two or three primary germ layers and are thus said to be of tissue grade construction, although some species may have tissues arranged to con¬stitute organs.
There are two basic body plans in this phylum: the polyp and the medusa. Actually, they are essentially the same form (a sac-like body with a central mouth surrounded by tentacles at one end), but merely have emphasized opposite axes and different amounts of mesoglea (a matrix laver between the epidermis and gastrodermis). The polyp is elongated in the oral-aboral axis, thus being tubular, and has very little mesoglea. The medusa has a short oral-ahoral axis and a proportionately widened diameter, becoming cup or bell-shaped, and has a thick mesoglea layer. The polyp is sessile; the medusa is typically motile.

Homesick

I am homesick !!! i am just listening to this music... and i'm feel better now...



"Home"

Another summer day
Has come and gone away
In Paris and Rome
But I wanna go home
Mmmmmmmm

May be surrounded by
A million people I
Still feel all alone
I just wanna go home
Oh, I miss you, you know

And I’ve been keeping all the letters that I wrote to you
Each one a line or two
“I’m fine baby, how are you?”
Well I would send them but I know that it’s just not enough
My words were cold and flat
And you deserve more than that

Another aeroplane
Another sunny place
I’m lucky, I know
But I wanna go home
Mmmm, I’ve got to go home

Let me go home
I’m just too far from where you are
I wanna come home

And I feel just like I’m living someone else’s life
It’s like I just stepped outside
When everything was going right
And I know just why you could not
Come along with me
'Cause this was not your dream
But you always believed in me

Another winter day has come
And gone away
In even Paris and Rome
And I wanna go home
Let me go home

And I’m surrounded by
A million people I
Still feel all alone
Oh, let me go home
Oh, I miss you, you know

Let me go home
I’ve had my run
Baby, I’m done
I gotta go home
Let me go home
It will all be all right
I’ll be home tonight
I’m coming back home

Pendekatan dan model Pengembangan kurikulum

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN

A. Latar Belakang
Kurikulum adalah kata yang sudah lazim digunakan dalam dunia pendidikan. Tanpa adanya kurikulum maka tidak akan ada acuan yang digunakan dalam proses belajar mengajar. Akibatnya proses pembelajaran akan menjadi tidak terarah dan tidak terkontrol, sehingga sulit untuk mengetahui apakah tujuan diadakannya kegiatan belajar mengajar telah tercapai atau tidak. Istilah kurikulum pertma kali digunakan pada dunia olahraga zaman Yunani kuno, yang berasal dari kata curir dan curere. Pada waktu itu kurikulum diartikan sebagai jarak yang harus ditempuh oleh seorang pelari. Namun, dalam dunia pendidikan dewasa ini para ahli pendidikan memiliki penafsiaran berbeda tentang kurikulum. Kurikulum diperuntukkan bagi anak didik untuk dapat mengembangkan peserta didik sesuai dengan tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Sebuah kurikulum meliputi perencanaan pengalaman belajar, serta perencanaan program pembelajaran demi tercapainya tujuan yang telah ditetapkan. Jadi, kurikulum tidak hanya menyangkut perencanaan materi yang akan dipelajari, tetapi juga tentang tata cara mengajarkan materi tersebut kepada para siswa. Intinya, kurikulum merupakan sebuah dokumen perencanaan yang berisi tentang tujuan yang harus dicapai, isi materi dan pengalaman belajar yang harus dilakukan siswa, strategi dan cara yang dapat dikembangkan, evaluasi sebagai tolak ukur pencapaian tujuan, serta implementasi dari dokumen yang dirancang dalam bentk nyata.
Tata cara pengembangan kurikulum adalah hal terpenting yang harus dipahami oleh para pendidik. Pemahaman tentang pengembangan kurikulum akan memudahkan para pendidik dalam memaksimalkan proses belajar mengajar. Hal ini juga akan memudahkan dalam mengevaluasi sistem pembelajaran yang digunakan, sehingga pendidik dapat mengetahui apakah tujuan telah dicapai secara maksimal atau belum. Karena berbagai pertimbangan diatas, maka "Pengembangan Kurikulum" menjadi sesuatu yang sangat penting bagi para pendidik. Sebagai calon pendidik, akan menjadi sebuah keputusan yang bijak untuk memahami tentang "Pengembangan Kurikulum" sejak dini.
B. Tujuan
1. Memahami berbagai jenis pendekatan kurikulum.
2. Mamahami berbagai model pengembangan kurikulum
C. Manfaat
1. Menambah wawasan tentang dasar-dasar ilmu pendidikan.
2. Meningkatkan pemahaman para calon pendidik mengenai hakekat pengembangan kurikulum.
3. Membantu para calon pendidik dalam memahami tata cara pengembangan kurikulum.

BAB II
PEMBAHASAN

A. Pendekatan Pengembangan Kurikulum
Pendekatan dapat diartikan sebagai titik tolak atau sudut pandang seseorang terhadap suatu proses tertentu. Pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum menunjuk pada titik tolak atau sudut pandang secara umum tentang proses pengembangan kurikulum menunjuk pada titik tolak atau sudut pandang secara umum tentang proses pengembangan kurikulum. Pengembangan kurikulum mempunyai makna yang cukup luas. Menurut sukmadinata, pengembangan kurikulum bisa berarti penyusunan kurikulum yang sama sekali baru (curiculum constraction), bisa juga menyempurnakan kurikulum yang sudah ada (curiculum improvement). Selanjutnya, beliau juga menjelaskan, pada satu sisi pengembangan kurikulum berarti menyusun seluruh perangkat kurikulum mulai dari dasar-dasar kurikulum, struktur dan sebaran mata pelajaran, garis-garis besar program pengjaran, sampai dengan pedoman-pedoman pelaksanaan (macro curiculum).
Dilihat dari cakupan pengembangannya apakah curiculum construction atau curiculum improvement, ada dua pendekatan yang dapat diterapkan dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Pendekatan tersebut adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Pendekatan Top Down
Pendekatan Top Down atau pendekatan administratif, yaitu pendekatan dengan sistem komando dari atas ke bawah. Dikatakan pendekatan Top Down, disebabkan pengembangan kurikulum muncul atas inisiatif para pejabat pendidikan atau para administrator atau dari para pemegang kebijakan (pejabat) pendidikan seperti dirjen atau kepala Kantor Wilayah. Selanjutnya dengan menggunakan semacam garis komando, pengembangan kurikulum menetes ke bawah. Oleh karena dimulai dari atas itulah, pendekatan ini juga dinamakan line staff model. Biasanya pendekatan ini banyak dipakai di negara-negara yang memiliki sistem pendidikan sentralisasi.
Dilihat dari cakupan pengembangannya, pendekatan top down bisa dilakukan baik untuk menyusun kurikulum yang benar-benar baru (curiculum constraction) ataupun untuk penyempurnaan kurikulum yang sudah ada (kurikulum improvement). Prosedur kerja atau proses pengembangan kurikulum model ini dilakukan kira-kira sebagai berikut:
1. Langkah pertama, dimulai dengan pembentukan tim pengarah oleh pejabat pendidikan. Anggota tim biasanya terdiri dari pejabat yang ada di bawahnya, seperti para pengawas pendidikan, ahli kurikulum, ahli disiplin ilmu, dan bisa juga ditambah dengan para tokoh dari dunia kerja. Tugas tim pengarah ini adalah merumuskan konsep dasar, garis-garis besar kebijakan, menyiapkan rumusan falsafah, dan tujuan umum pendidikan.
2. Langkah kedua, adalah menyusun tim atau kelompok kerja untuk menjabarkan kebijakan atau rumusan-rumusan yang telah disusun oleh tim pengarah. Anggota kelompok kerja ini adalah para ahli kurikulum, para ahli disiplin ilmu dari perguruan tinggi, ditambah dengan guru-guru senior yang dianggap sudah berpengalaman. Tugas pokok tim ini adalah merumuskan tujuan-tujuan yang lebih operasional dari tujuan-tujuan umum, memilih dan menyusun sequence bahan pelajaran, memilih strategi pengajaran, dan alat atau petunjuk evaluasi, serta menyusun pedoman-pedoman pelaksanaan kurikulum bagi guru.
3. Langkah ketiga, apabila kurikulum sudah selesai disusun oleh tim atau kelompok kerja, selanjutnya hasilnya diserahkan kepada tim perumus untuk dikaji dan diberi catatan-catatan atau direvisi. Bila dianggap perlu, kurikulum itu di uji cobakan dan dievaluasi kelayakannya, oleh suatu tim yang ditunjuk oleh para administrator. Hasil uji coba itu digunakan sebagai bahan penyempurnaan.
4. Keempat, para administrator selanjutnya memerintahkan kepada setiap sekolah untuk mengimplementasikan kurikulum yang telah tersusun itu.

Dari langkah-langkah pengembangan seperti yang telah dikemukakan di atas, maka tampak jelas bahwa inisiatif penyempurnaan atau perubahan kurikulum dimulai oleh pemegang kebijakan kurikulum, atau para pejabat yang berhubungan dengan pendidikan; sedangkan tugas guru hanya sebagai pelaksana kurikulum yang telah ditentukan oleh para pemegang kebijakan.

2. Pendekatan Grass Roots
Pada model grass roots, inisiatif pengembangan kurikulum dimulai dari lapangan atau dari guru-guru sebagai implementator, kemudian menyebar pada lingkungan yang lebih luas, makanya pengembangan kurikulum ini disebut juga pengembangan kurikulum dari bawah ke atas. Oleh karena sifatnya yang demikian, maka pendekatan ini lebih banyak digunakan dalam penyempurnaan kurikulum (curiculum improvemnt), walaupun dalam skala yang terbatas mungkin juga digunakan dalam pengembangan kurikulum baru (curiculum constraction).
Minimal ada dua syarat sebagai kondisi yang memungkinkan pendekatan grass root dapat berlangsung. Pertama, manakala kurikulum itu benar-benar bersifat lentur sehingga memberikan kesempatan kepada setiap guru secara lebih terbuka untuk memperbarui atau menyempurnakan kurikulum yang sedang diberakukan. Kurikulum yang bersifat kaku, yang hanya mengandung petunjuk dan persyaratan teknis sangat sulit dilakukan pengembangannya dengan pendekatan ini. Kedua, pendekatan grass root hanya mungkin terjadi jika guru memiliki sikap professional yan tinggi disertai kemampuan yang memadai.

Ada beberapa langkah penyempurnaan kurkulum yang dapat kita lakukan manakala enggunakan pendekatan grass root ini. Langkah-lankah tersebut adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Menyadari adanya masalah. Pendekatan grass root biasanya diawali dari keresahan guru tentang kurikulum yang berlaku. Misalnya dirasakannya ketidakcocokan penggunaan strategi pembelajaran, atau kegiatan evaluasi seperti yang diharapkan, atau masalah kuangnya motivasi belajar siswa, sehingga kita merasa tertanggu dan lain sebagainya. Pemahaman dan ksadaran guru akan adanya suatu masalah merupakan kunci dalam grass root. Tanpa adanya kesadaran masalah tidak mingkin grass roots dapat berlangsung.
2. Mengadakan refleksi. Kalau kita merasakan adanya masalah, maka selanjutnya kita berusaha mencari penyebab muncunya masalah tersebut. Refleksi dilakukan dengan mengkaji literature yang relevan. Misalnya dengan membaca buku, jurnal hasil penelitian yang relevan dengan masalah yan kita hadapi, atau mengkaji sumber informasi lain. Misalnya melacak sumber-sumber dari internet, atau melakukan diskusi dengan teman sejawat dan mengkaji sumber dari lapangan.
3. Mngajukan hipotesis atau jawaban sementara. Berdasarkan hasl kajian refleksi, selanjutnya uru memetakan berbagai kemungkinan munculnya masalah dan cara penanggulangannya.
4. Menentukan hipotesis yang sangat mungkin dekat dan dapat dilakukan sesuai dengan situasi dan kondisi lapangan. Tidak mungkin berbagai kemungkinan bias kita laksanakan. Dalam langkah ini kita hanya memilih kemungkinan yang dapat dilakukan dan selanjutnya merncanakan apa ynag harus kita lakukan untuk mengatasi masalah ersebut. Disamping itu kita juga dapat memperhitungkan berbagai kemungkinan yang akan muncul, misalnya berbagai hambatan yang akan terjadi sehingga lebih dini kita akan dapat mengatasi hambatan-hambatn tersebut.
5. Mengimplementasikan perencanaan dan mengevaluasinya secara terus-menerus hingga terpechkan masalah yang dihadapi. Alam proses pelaksaannya, Kita dapat berkolaborasi atau meinta pendapat teman sejawat.
6. Membuat dan menyusun laporan hasil pelaksanaan pengembangan melalui grass roots. Langkah ini sangat penting untuk dilakukan sebagai bahan publikasi dan diseminasi, sehingga memungkinkan dapat dimanfaatkan dan diterapkan oleh orang lain yang pada gilirannya hasil pengembangan dapat tersebar.

B. MODEL-MODEL PENGEMBANGAN KURIKULUM
Dalam pengembangan kurikulum ada beberapa model yang dapat digunakan. Tiap model memiliki kekhasan tertentu baik dilihat dari keluasan pengembangan kurikulumnya itu sendiri maupun dilihat dari tahapan pendekatannya maupun pengembangannya;
1. Model Tyler
Pengembangan kurikulum model Tyler yang dapat ditemukan dalam buka classis yang sampai sekarang banyak dijadikan rujukan pada proses pengembangan kurikulum. Dalam model ini, ada 4 hal yang dianggap fundamental untuk mengembangkan kurikulum :
1. Menentukan tujuan
2. Menentukan pengalaman belajar
3. Mengorganisasi pengalaman belajar
4. Evaluasi
2. Model Taba
Berbeda dengan model yang dikembangkan Tyler, model taba lebih menitikberatkan pada bagaimana mengembangkan kurikulum sebagai suatu proses perbaikan dan penyempurnaan. Oleh karena itu dalam model ini dikembangkan tahap-tahap yang harus dilakukan oleh para pengembang kurikulum.

Ada 5 langkah pengembangan kurikulum model Taba:
1. Menghasilkan unit-unit percobaan
2. Menguji coba unit eksperimen untuk menentukan validitas dan
kelayakan penggunaannya
3. Merivisi dan mengonsolidasi unit eksperimen
4. Mengembangkan keseluruhan rangka kurikulum
5. Mengimplementasi kurikulum yang telah teruji
3. Model Oliva
Menurut olive suatu model kurikulum harus bersifat simpel, komprensif, dan sistematik. Menurut olive model yang dikembangkan ini dapat digunakan dalam beberapa dimensi. Yang pertama untuk menyempurnakan kurikulum sekolah dalam bidang-bidang khsus misalkan penyempurnaan kurikulum bidang studi tertentu disekolah, baik dalam tataran perencanaan kurikulum maupun dalam proses pembelajarannya. Kedua, model ini juga dapat digunakan untuk membuat keputusan dalam merancang program kurikulum. Ketiga model ini dapat digunakan dalam program pembelajaran secara khusus.
4. Model Beauchamp
Model ini dinamakan system Beauchamp, karena memang diciptakan dan dikembangkan oleh Bauchamp seorang ahli kurikulum. Beauchamp mengemukakan ada lima langkah dalam proses pengembangan kurikulum.
a. Menetapkan wilayah atau arena yang akan melakukan perubahan suatu kurikulum. Wilayah itu bias terjadi pada hanya satu sekolah, satu kecamatan, kabupaten, atau mungkin tingkat provinsi dan tingkat nasional.
b. Menetapkan orang-orang yang akan terlibat dalam proses pngembangan kurikulum. Ia menyarankan untuk melibatkan seluas-luasnya para tokoh di masyarakat. Baik itu para ahli/ spesialis kurikulum, para ahli pendidikan serta para professional dalam bidang lain.
c. Menetapkan prosedur yang akan ditempuh, yaitu dalam hal merumuskan tujuan umum dan tujuan khusus, memilih isi dan pengalaman belajar serta menetapkan evaluasi. Keseluruhan prosedur itu selanjutnya dapat dibagi dalam lima langkah:
1). Membentuk tim pengembang kurikulum
2). Melakukan penilaian terhadap kurikulum yang sedang berjalan
3). Melakukan studi atau penjajakan tentang penentuan kurikulum baru
4). Merumuskan kriteria dan alternative pengembang kurikulum
5). Menyusun dan menulis kurikulum yang dikehendaki
d. Implementasi kurikulum. Pada tahap ini perlu dipersiapkan secara matang berbagai hal yang dapat berpengaruh baik langsung maupun tidak langsung terhadap efektivitas penggunaan kurikulum.
e. Melaksanakan evaluasi kurikulum yang menyangkut:
1). Evaluasi terhadap pelaksanaan kurikulum oleh guru-guru di sekolah
2). Evaluasi terhadap desain kurikulum
3). Evaluasi keberhasilan amak didik
4). Evaluasi system kurikulum

5. Model Wheeler
Menurut Wheller, pengembangan kurikulum merupakan suatu proses ynag membentuk lingkaran yang terjadi secara terus menerus. Dimana ada lima fase (tahap). Setiap tahap merupakan pekerjaan yang berlangsung secara sistematis atau berturut. Artinya, kita tidak mungkin dapat menyelesaikan tahapan kedua manakala tahapan pertama belum terselesaikan. Namun demikian, manakala setiap tahap sudah selesai dikerjakan, kita akan kembali pada tahap awal. Deikian proses pengembangan sebuah kurikulum berlangsung tanpa ujung.
Wheller berpendapat, pengembangan kurikulum terdiri atas lima tahap, yakni:
a. Menentukan tujuan umum dan tujuan khusus.
b. Menentukan pengalaman belajar yang mungkin dapat dilakukan oleh siswa untuk mencapai tujuan yang dirumuskan dalam langkah pertama.
c. Menentukan isi atau materi pembelajaran sesuai dengan pengelaman belajar
d. Mengorganisasi atau menyatukan pengalaman belajar dengan isi atau materi belajar
e. Melakukan evaluasi setiap fase pengembangan dan pencapaian tujuan

6. Model Nicholls
Dalam bukunya Developing a Curriculum: a Practical Guide (1978), Howard Nicholls menjelaskan bahwa pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum terdiri atas elemen-elemen kurikulum yang membentuk siklus.
Model pengembangan kurikulum Nicholls menggunakan pendekatan siklus seperti model Wheeler. Model Nicholls digunakan apabila ingin menyusun kurikulum baru yang diakibatkan oleh terjadinya perubahan situasi.Ada lima langkah pengembangan kurikulum menurut Nicholls, yaitu:
a. Analisis sesuatu
b. Menentukan tujuan khusus
c. Menentukan dan mengorganisasi isi pelajaran
d. Menentukan dan mengorganisasi metode
e. Evaluasi

7. Model Dynamic Skilbeck
Menurut Skilbeck, model pengembangan kurikulum yang ia namakan model Dynamic,b adalah model pngembangan kurikulum pada level sekolah (School Nased Curriculum Development) Skilbeck menjelaskan model ini diperuntukkan untuk setiap guru yang ingin mengembangkan kurikulum yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan sekolah. Agar proses pengembangan berjalan dengan baik, maka setiap pengembang termasuk guru perlu memahami lima elemen pokok yang dimulai dari mennganalisis situasi sampai pada melakukan penilaian. Skilbeck menganjurkan model pengembangan kurikulum yang ia susun dapat dijadikan alternative dalam pengembangan kurikulum tingkat sekolah. Menurut Skilbeck langkah-langakah pengembangan kurikulum adalah sebagai berikut:
a. Menganalisis sesuatu
b. Memformulasikan tujuan
c. Menyususn program
d. Interpretasi dan implementasi
e. Monitoring, feedback, penilaian, dan rekonstruksi



BAB III
PENUTUP

A. Kesimpulan
1. Pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum ada 2 jenis, yaitu Pendekatan Top Down sebagai pendekatan dengan sistem komando dari atas ke bawah, dan Pendekatan Grass-Root sebagai inisiatif pengembangan kurikulum yang dimulai dari lapangan atau dari guru-guru sebagai implementator, kemudian menyebar pada lingkungan yang lebih luas, atau disebut juga pengembangan kurikulum dari bawah ke atas.
2. Model-model pengembangan kurikulum meliputi:
a. Model Tyler,
b. Model taba
c. Model Oliva
d. Model beauchamp
e. Model Wheeler
f. Model Nicholls
g. Model dynamic skilbeck

B. Saran
` Dengan adanya m,akalah ini, diharapkan dapat menambah pengetahuan para calon pendidik tentang pendekatan dan model pengembangan kurikulum.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Sanjaya Wina. 2008. Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Kencana
http://www.scribd.com/doc/32248702/Prinsip-Pengembangan-Kurikulum-Endick



CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
The curriculum is a word that is commonly used in education. Without the curriculum will not be any reference that is used in teaching and learning. As a result, the learning process will be unfocused and uncontrolled, making it difficult to know whether the purpose of the teaching and learning activities have been achieved or not. The term curriculum is used pertma time in the world of sports ancient Greece, which comes from the word curir and curere. At that time the curriculum is defined as the distance that must be taken by a runner. However, in today's education world education experts have penafsiaran differently about the curriculum. The curriculum is for students to be able to develop learners in accordance with the objectives to be achieved. A curriculum includes planning learning experiences, and planning of learning programs to achieve those objectives. So, not only about planning curriculum materials that will be studied, but also regarding the procedure of teaching material to students. In essence, the curriculum is a planning document that contains the goals to be achieved, the content materials and learning experiences that must be students, strategies, and how that can be developed, evaluated as a benchmark of achievement goals, and implementation of a document designed in real form.
The procedure for curriculum development is the most important thing that must be understood by educators. An understanding of curriculum development will allow the educators in maximizing the learning process. This will also facilitate in evaluating the learning system is used, so that educators can find out whether the objectives have been achieved maximal or not. Due to various considerations above, the "Curriculum Development" becomes something very important for educators. As a prospective educator, will be a wise decision to understand about the "Curriculum Development" early on.
B. Purpose
1. Understanding the various types of curriculum approaches.
2. Understanding the various models of curriculum development
C. Benefits
1. Adding insight into the fundamentals of science education.
2. Improve understanding of the prospective educators about the nature of curriculum development.
3. Help prospective educators in the ways of curriculum development.
















CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. Curriculum Development Approach
The approach can be interpreted as a point of departure or point of view of a person against a particular process. Curriculum development approach refers to the point of departure or point of view in general about the process of curriculum development refers to the point of departure or point of view in general about the process of curriculum development. Curriculum development has a wide meaning. According sukmadinata, curriculum development could mean the preparation of an entirely new curriculum (curiculum constraction), can also improve the existing curriculum (curiculum improvement). Furthermore, he also explained, on the one hand, means preparing curriculum development throughout the curriculum starting from the basics of curriculum, structure and distribution of subjects, the outlines of the program pengjaran, until the implementation of these guidelines (macro curiculum).
Viewed from the scope of its development if construction or curiculum curiculum improvement, there are two approaches that can be applied in curriculum development. The approach is as follows:
1. Top Down Approach
Approach Top Down or administrative approaches, namely the approach with a system of command from top to bottom. It said the Top Down approach, due to curriculum development emerged at the initiative of education officials or the administrators or the policy holders (acting) director general or head of education such as the Regional Office. Furthermore, by using such a command line, curriculum development trickled down. Therefore, starting from the top of that, this approach is also called the line staff model. Usually this approach is widely used in countries that have centralized education system.
Viewed from the scope of its development, top down approach can be done either to formulate a curriculum that is really new (curiculum constraction) or to improve existing curricula (curriculum improvement). Work procedures or processes of curriculum development of this model is roughly as follows:
1. The first step, starting with the referring team formation by education officials. Team members usually consist of officials in the bottom, like the superintendent of education, curriculum experts, discipline experts, and can also be added to the figures from the world of work. Task of steering this team is to formulate basic concepts, the outlines of policy, to prepare the formulation of philosophy, and general purpose of education.
2. The second step, is to set up teams or working groups to describe the policy or formulas that have been prepared by the referring team. Members of the group was the curriculum experts, discipline experts from universities, coupled with senior teachers are considered to have experienced. The main task of this team is to formulate objectives more operational than general goals, choose and arrange the sequence of lessons, choose instructional strategies, and evaluation tools or instructions, and to develop guidelines for the implementation of curriculum for teachers.
3. The third step, if the curriculum were compiled by a team or work group, then the results submitted to the drafting team for review and given the records or revised. If deemed necessary, the curriculum was tested and evaluated on its feasibility, by a team appointed by the administrator. The trial results were used as material improvements.
4. Fourth, the administrators then ordered to each school to implement a curriculum that has been arranged it.

From the development steps as mentioned above, it seems clear that improvement initiative or curriculum changes initiated by curriculum policy holder, or officials related to education, while teachers' duties only as the executor of the curriculum that has been determined by policy holders.

2. Grass Roots Approach
At the grass roots model, curriculum development initiative started from the ground or from the teachers as an implementer, and then spread to a wider audience, hence the development of this curriculum is also called curriculum development from bottom to top. Because it is so, then this approach is more widely used in the improvement of the curriculum (curiculum improvemnt), although on a limited scale may also be used in the development of new curriculum (curiculum constraction).
At least two terms as a condition which allows the grass roots approach to progress. First, when the curriculum actually is flexible so as to provide the opportunity for every teacher more openly to update or refine the curriculum is being diberakukan. The curriculum is rigid, which only contains instructions and technical requirements are very difficult to do development with this approach. Second, grass roots approach is only possible if the teacher has a professional attitude with a high yan sufficient capability.
There are several steps curiculum improvements that we can do when use this grass roots approach. Those steps are as follows:
1. Aware of the problem. Grassroot approach usually starts from the anxieties of teachers about the curriculum and regulations. For example, she felt incompatibility use of learning strategies, or evaluation activities as expected, or problems kuangnya student motivation, so we feel tertanggu and so forth. Understanding and ksadaran teachers there will be a key issue in the grass root. Without the awareness of the problem is not mingkin grass roots can take place.
2. Organizing reflection. If we felt there was a problem, we then we tried to find the cause of the existence of the problem. Reflection is done by reviewing the relevant literature. For example, by reading books, research journals relevant to the problems we face yan, or examine other sources of information. For example, to track the sources of the Internet, or conduct discussions with colleagues and assess the sources of the field.
3. Ask for a hypothesis or answer a while. Based on the result studies reflection, then make the map of the possibilities of the problem and how to overcome it.
4. Determining the most likely hypothesis is that close and can be done in accordance with the situation and condition of the field. There's no way we carry out a variety of possible bias. In this step we only choose the possibilities that can be done and further which plan what we must do to overcome the problem. Besides, we also can take into account the various possibilities that will arise, for example, various obstacles that would happen so early we will be able to overcome these problem.
5. Implement plan and evaluate on an ongoing basis until problems are solved. Natural process, we can collaborate or ask for the opinion of our colleague.
6. Create and prepare reports on the results of the implementation of development through grass roots. This step is very important to do as the publication and dissemination of materials, allowing to be used and applied by others which in turn is the result of the development can be spread.

B. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS
In developing the curriculum there are several models that can be used. Each model has a certain particularity nice views of the breadth of its curriculum development itself and the views of the stages of its approach and its development;
1. Model Tyler
Tyler's curriculum development model that can be found in open classis that until now much used as a reference to the process of curriculum development. In this model, there are 4 things that are considered fundamental to develop the curriculum:
1. Determining goals
2. Determining the learning experience
3. Organizing learning experiences
4. Evaluation
2. Taba Model
Unlike the model developed by Tyler, Taba model is more focused on how to develop the curriculum as a process of improvement and refinement. Therefore in this model developed stages that must be done by the developers of the curriculum. There are 5 steps Taba curriculum development model:
1. Produce experimental units
2. Test the experimental unit to determine the validity and
feasibility of its use
3. Revise and consolidate the unit experiments
4. Develop the overall framework of the curriculum
5. Implement a curriculum that has been tested
3. Model Oliva
According to the olive of a model curriculum should be simple, komprensif, and systematic. According to the olive model developed can be used in several dimensions. The first is to improve the school curriculum in the areas of improvement eg khsus certain subjects in school curricula, both at the level of curriculum planning and in the learning process. Second, this model can also be used to make decisions in designing the program curriculum. All three models can be used in the learning program in particular.
4. Beauchamp Model
This model is called the Beauchamp system, because it was created and developed by Beauchamp a curriculum expert. Beauchamp suggests there are five
Steps in the process of curriculum development:
a. Define the area that will make changes to a curriculum. Areas that can occur in only one school, one sub-district, district, or perhaps the provincial level and the level of notional.
b. Assign people to be involved in the process of curriculum development. Beauchamp suggested to involve the broadest leaders in the community. The people who should be involved is composed of the professional in curriculum specialists, education experts including teachers who are considered experienced, other professionals in the field of education (such as librarians, laboratory, educational consultant, etc.), and professionals in other fields along with community leaders (politicians, industrialists, businessmen, etc.).
c. Establish procedures that will be pursued, namely in terms of formulating common goals and specific objectives, selecting content and learning experiences and establish evaluation. The entire procedure can be further divided into five steps:
1) Establish a curriculum development
2) Conduct an assessment of the ongoing curriculum
3) Conduct or exploratory studies concerning the determination of the new curriculum
4) Formulate the criteria and the alternative curriculum development
5) Develop and write the desired of curriculum
d. Implementation of the curriculum. At this stage needs to be carefully various things that can affect either directly or indirectly on the use of curriculum effectiveness, such as teachers' understanding about curriculum, facilities or facilities that are available, school management, and so forth.
e. Done involving curriculum evaluation:
1) Evaluation of implementation of the curriculum by teachers in school
2) Evaluation of curriculum design
3) Evaluate the success of their students
4) Evaluation of the curriculum system
5. Wheeler Model
According to Wheeler curriculum development is a process which forms a circle. Curriculum development process occurs continuously. Wheeler believes the curriculum development process consists of five phases (stages). Each stage is a work that took place in a systematic or consecutive. That is, we can not possibly complete the second phase if the first phase have not been resolved. However, when each phase is completed, we return to the initial stage. Similarly, the curriculum development process take place without the tip. Wheeler argues that curriculum development consists of five stages:
a. Determining the general purpose and special. The general objective can be a normative goals that contain philosophical goal (AIM) or practical purposes (goals). While specific goals are goals that are specific and observable (objective) that is easily measured the reach of goals
b. Determining the learning experience that may be performed by students to achieve the goals formulated in the first step.
c. Determining the content or learning materials in accordance with the learning experience.
d. Organize or unify the learning experience with the content or learning materials.
e. To evaluate each phase of development and achievement of goals.
6. Nicholls Model
In his book Developing a Curriculum: A Practical Guide (1978), Howard Nicholls explained that the curriculum development approach consists of the elements that make up the cycle curriculum. Nicholls curriculum development model using the approach as a model cycle Wheeler. Nicholls model is used if you want to develop a new curriculum that resulted from the change sitiasi. According to Nicholls there are five steps of curriculum development, namely:
a. Analysis of situation
b. Define specific objectives
c. Define and organize the content
d. Determining and organizing methods
e. Evaluation
7. Dynamic Skilbeck Model
According to Skilbeck, curriculum development model that he calls Dynamic model, is a model of curriculum development at school level (School Nased Curriculum Development). Skilbeck explains the model is intended for every teacher who wants to develop a curriculum appropriate to the needs of the school. For the development process goes well, then any development including teachers need to understand the five basic elements that starts from analyzing the situation until the assessment. Skilbeck encourage curriculum development model that he set up can be an alternative in the development curriculum school level. According skilbeck curriculum development steps are:
a. Analyzing the situation
b. Formulate goal
c. Develop programs
d. Interpretation and implementation
e. Monitoring, feedback, assessment and reconstruction.







CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
1. Curriculum development approach there are 2 types, namely top down approach as an approach with a system of command from top to bottom, and the Grass-Root approach as a curriculum development initiative that began from the field or from the teachers as an implementer, and then spread to the wider environment, or also known as curriculum development from bottom to top.
2. Models of curriculum development include:
a. Model Tyler
b. Taba Model
c. Model Oliva
d. Model Beauchamp
e. Wheeler model
f. Nicholls Model
g. Dynamic model skilbeck
B. Suggestion
`With the m, his paper has, is expected to increase the knowledge of prospective educators about approaches and models of curriculum development.

How are you, My Little Angel?

Long time no see...

Begitu banyakk kisah yang telah terukir...

Banyak hal yang ingin aku ceritakan padamu...

I miss your laugh...

How are you, My little angel?

Reproductive System Part.II

(Dorit;485)
Sex is fundamentally the exchange of genes between two different individuals. It gives rises to new combinations, some of which may be superior in their fitness to the original combinations. Sexual reproduction in animals anvolves the formation by meiosis of the egg and sperm, collectively called gametes, which contain the haploid chromosom number. The egg is typically large and non motile, with a store of nutrients to support the development of an embryo. The sperm is small and non-motile, adapted to swimming actively by beating its long, whiplike tail. The normal diploid chromosome number of the adult is restored when an egg and sperm unite at fertilization. In most species the sexes are separated, with distinct male and female individuals. so the genetic traits of two individuals also are combined at fertilization.

(Dorit;Page 499)
Mammalian Fertilization
During copulation, the sperm that have been stored primarily in the epididymis are ejaculated by the sudden contraction of muscles in and around the male ducts, and the accessory sex glands currently discharge their secretion. The seminal fluid that is deposited in the vagina may contais as many as 400,000,000 sperm in humans. Mucus in the seminal fluid serves as a conveyance for the sperm, proteolytic enzymes break it down into a more watery fluid after the semen has been deposits in the vagina, permitting the sperm to become highly motile. Fructose provides a source of energy, alkaline materials prevent the sperm from being killed by fatty acids promote the contaction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the uterus and uterine tubes.
Sperm move from the vagina through the uterus and up the uterin tube in a little over one hour. Although sperm can swim ny beating the tail, muscular contraction of the uterus and uterine tubes is primarily responsible for carrying them upward. Fertilization occurs in the upper part of the uterine tube, but the arrival of an egg and the sperm in this region need not coincide exactly. Sperm retain their fertilizing powers for a day or two, and the egg moves slowly down the uterine tube, retaining its ability to be fertilized for about a day.

(Curtis;594)
Pathway of the egg: When the oocyte is released from the follicle at ovulation, it is swept into the adjacent oviduct (sometimes called a Fallopian tube) by the movement of the funnel-shaped opening of the oviduct over the surface of the ovary and by the beating of cilia that line the fingerlike projections surrounding thid opening. The smooth muscles in the walls of the oviduct contract in continous peritaltic waves that move the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus in about three days. An unfertilized oocyte, however, lives only about 24 hours after it is ejected from the follicle. So, fertilization, if it is to occur, must occur in an oviduct. If the egg cell is fertilized, it becomes implanted in the endometrium three to four days after the young embryo reaches the uterus, six or seven days after the egg was fertilized. If the egg cell is not fertilized, it dies, and the endometrial lining of the uterus is shed at menstruation. Fertilized eggs implanted in the endometrium are sometimes lost in abnormal menstrual flow, but it is difficult to estimate the number of such very short-live pregnancy.

(Curtis; 597)
The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ about 7.5 centimeters long and 5 centimetes wide. It is lined by the endometrium, which has two principal layers, one of which is shed at menstruation and another from which the shed layer is regenerated.

The vagina is a muscular tube about 7.5 centimeters long that leads from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. It is the receptive organ for the penis and also the birth canal. The lining of the vagina is rich in glycogen, which bacteria normally present in the vagina convert to lactic acid. As a consequence the vaginal tract is mildly acidic, with a pH between 4 and 5.

The external genital organs of the female are collectively known as the vulva. The clitoris, which corresponds to the penis in male, is about 2 centimeters long and, like the penis, is composed chiefly of erectile tissue.

Source:
Curtis, Helena. 1979. "Biology." New York: Worth Publisher, Inc.kk

Dorit, Robert L; Warren F. Walker; Robert D. Barnes. 1991. "Biology". USA: Saunders Collage Publisher.

Reproductive System

The basic function of the reproductive system of all sexual organism is to accomplish fertilization. Fertilization is the union of the nuclei of two appropriate gametes with one another. In most higher animals fertilization is atteined by the fusion of the nucleus of the egg cell with that of the sperm. In virtually all mammals including man the reproductive system has the added role of insuring the successful development of the embryo into a new individual within the body of the female. The reproductive system in vertebrates is the only system of the body that exists in two morphologically and functionally different states thus accounting for two different types of individuals, male and female. It is essentially composed of the gonads or sex glands (which produce sex cells or gamets) and the ducts or passageways which permit the transfer of the gametes. An additional primary sexual structure, the copulatory organ or penis, has evolved in the males of some animals, such as the mammals, permitting the deposition of sperm within the ducts of the female reproductive system (Nason, 1965).
The reproductive system of the human female consists primarily of two ovaries (or the female gonads) which produce the female gametes or egg cells, and associated ductd and structures. The latter include the fallopian tubes ar oviduct, uterus, vagina, and vulva. Each of the two adult ovaries is about the size and shape of a large almond region of the abdominal cavity. The surface of the ovary consists of a layer of columnar epithelial cells which at various intervals penetrate deeply as columns of cells into the underlying connective tissue (Nason, 1965).
The male reproductive system in human consists of two primary sex glands, the testes, which produce the sperm, and a series of ducts, accessory glands, and supporting structures. Each of the two testes in the adult male is an avoid body about the size of a walnut. Both are located outside the body cavity within a skin-covered pouch called the scrotum or the scrotal sac. In other vertebrate such as fish, frog, reptile, and bird, the testes are located within the abdominal cavity. The slightly lower temperature of the scrotum (about 3 to 5 degrees celcius less) compared to the abdominal cavity is believed to be essential for the formation of sperm. (Nason, 1965)
Another vertebrate such as frog also have reproductive system. Reproductive system serves to maintain the frog as a species. It consists of the reproductive organs or gonads, which produce sex cells, and the reproductive ducts through which these cells leave the body. Frogs are of two sexes, the female which lay eggs or ova (singel: ovum), and the males which produce sperm or spermatozoa to fertilize the eggs and cause them to develop into new individuals. Each individual frog is either female or male, the sexes being separate. The female two gonads, or ovaries, are attached dordally in the coelom, near the kidneys, each supported by a mesentry (mesovarium). The ovary is supplied with arteries that bring materials for growth of the ova. Along either side of the middorsal line of the coelom is a whitish convoluted oviduct, its anterior end is an open ciliated funnel (ostium and its posterior and joins dorsally to the cloaca). The male has two small bean-shaped testes attached near the kidneys attached near the kidneys by mesentries . Each testis is a mass of coiled seminiferous tubules where spermatozoa are produced. The minute sperm, when mature, enter several fine ducts, or vasa efferentia, that connect to uriniferous tubules in the anterior part of the kidney. The sperm then pass down the tubules and ureter (which are joint urogenital canals), and may be stored in the dilated posterior end or seminal vesicle, of the ureter (Storer, 1957).

Source: Nason, alvin. 1965. "Text Book of Modern Biology." New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Reproductive System

The basic function of the reproductive system of all sexual organism is to accomplish fertilization. Fertilization is the union of the nuclei of two appropriate gametes with one another. In most higher animals fertilization is atteined by the fusion of the nucleus of the egg cell with that of the sperm. In virtually all mammals including man the reproductive system has the added role of insuring the successful development of the embryo into a new individual within the body of the female. The reproductive system in vertebrates is the only system of the body that exists in two morphologically and functionally different states thus accounting for two different types of individuals, male and female. It is essentially composed of the gonads or sex glands (which produce sex cells or gamets) and the ducts or passageways which permit the transfer of the gametes. An additional primary sexual structure, the copulatory organ or penis, has evolved in the males of some animals, such as the mammals, permitting the deposition of sperm within the ducts of the female reproductive system (Nason, 1965).
The reproductive system of the human female consists primarily of two ovaries (or the female gonads) which produce the female gametes or egg cells, and associated ductd and structures. The latter include the fallopian tubes ar oviduct, uterus, vagina, and vulva. Each of the two adult ovaries is about the size and shape of a large almond region of the abdominal cavity. The surface of the ovary consists of a layer of columnar epithelial cells which at various intervals penetrate deeply as columns of cells into the underlying connective tissue (Nason, 1965).
The male reproductive system in human consists of two primary sex glands, the testes, which produce the sperm, and a series of ducts, accessory glands, and supporting structures. Each of the two testes in the adult male is an avoid body about the size of a walnut. Both are located outside the body cavity within a skin-covered pouch called the scrotum or the scrotal sac. In other vertebrate such as fish, frog, reptile, and bird, the testes are located within the abdominal cavity. The slightly lower temperature of the scrotum (about 3 to 5 degrees celcius less) compared to the abdominal cavity is believed to be essential for the formation of sperm. (Nason, 1965)
Another vertebrate such as frog also have reproductive system. Reproductive system serves to maintain the frog as a species. It consists of the reproductive organs or gonads, which produce sex cells, and the reproductive ducts through which these cells leave the body. Frogs are of two sexes, the female which lay eggs or ova (singel: ovum), and the males which produce sperm or spermatozoa to fertilize the eggs and cause them to develop into new individuals. Each individual frog is either female or male, the sexes being separate. The female two gonads, or ovaries, are attached dordally in the coelom, near the kidneys, each supported by a mesentry (mesovarium). The ovary is supplied with arteries that bring materials for growth of the ova. Along either side of the middorsal line of the coelom is a whitish convoluted oviduct, its anterior end is an open ciliated funnel (ostium and its posterior and joins dorsally to the cloaca). The male has two small bean-shaped testes attached near the kidneys attached near the kidneys by mesentries . Each testis is a mass of coiled seminiferous tubules where spermatozoa are produced. The minute sperm, when mature, enter several fine ducts, or vasa efferentia, that connect to uriniferous tubules in the anterior part of the kidney. The sperm then pass down the tubules and ureter (which are joint urogenital canals), and may be stored in the dilated posterior end or seminal vesicle, of the ureter (Storer, 1957).

Source: Nason, alvin. 1965. "Text Book of Modern Biology." New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Mekanisme Endositosis yang Diperantarai Reseptor

Endositosis adalah transpor makromolekul dan materi yang sangat kecil ke dalam sel dengan cara membentuk vesikula baru dari membran plasma. Endositosis yang diperantarai reseptor sangat spesifik. Yang tertanam dalam membrane adalah protein dengan tempat reseptor yang sangat spesifik yang dipaparkan ke fluida ekstraseluler. Ekstraseluler yang terikat pada reseptor disebut ligan, suatu istilah umum untuk setiap molekul yang terikat khususnya pada tempat reseptor molekul lain. Protein reseptor biasanya mengelompok dalam protein terlapisi, yang sisi sitoplasmiknya dilapisi oleh lapisan protein samar. Protein pelapis ini membantu memperdalam lubang dan membentuk vesikula. Endositosis yang diperantarai reseptor memungkinkan sel dapat memperoleh substansi spesifik dalam jumlah yang melimpah, sekalipun substansi itu mungkin saja konsentrasinya tidak tinggi dalam fluida intraseluler. Sel manusia menggunakan proses ini untuk menyerap kolesterol dan digunakan dalam sintesis membrane dan sebagai precursor untuk sintesis steroid lainnya.

Mekanisme endositosis yang diperantarai reseptor adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Kolesterol berpindah dalam partikel darah disebut lipoprotein densutas rendah (low-density lipoprotein - LDL). Kolesterol tersebut dikelilingi oleh lapisan fosfolipid dan juga protein. Protein inilah yang dikenali secara spesifik oleh reseptor LDL yang tertanam pada membrane plasma.

2. LDL partikel (kolesterol yang dikelilingi lapisan fosfolipid dan protein) kemudian terikat ke reseptor LDL yang tertanam pada membrane.

3. Molekul adaptin kemudian terikat pada ekor LDL reseptor. Molekul adaptin segera menstimulasi terikatnya Clathrin. Clathrin merupakan jenis protein yang memfasilitasi pembentukan vesikula. Dengan terikatnya Clathrin, maka sebagian kecil luas membran plasma terbenam ke dalam membentuk kantong. Begitu kantong ini semakin dalam, kantong ini terjepit membentuk vesikula. Vesikula yang diselubungi oleh molekul adaptin dan clathrin kemudian terlepas dari membrane plasma.

4. Setelah tiba di sitosol, molekul adaptin dan clathrin yang melekat pada permukaan vesikula ini kemudian terlepas. Selanjutnya, vesikula ini berfusi dengan endosome.

5. Endosome memiliki pH internal yang rendah, sehingga menyebabkan LDL reseptor melepaskan muatannya ( muatannya yaitu molekul kolesterol yang diselubungi protein dan lapisan fosfolipid). LDL reseptor yang telah melepaskan muatannya akan segera dikembalikan ke membrane plasma. Sebuah vesikula yang memuat LDL reseptor tersebut akan terlepas dari endosome.

6. Sementara itu, LDL partikel harus dibongkar. Endosome yang berisi LDL partikel tersebut dikirim ke lisosom. Lisosom berisi anzim-enzim hidrolitik yang dapat mencerna partikel LDL, Sehingga akhirnya dihasilkan kolesterol dan juga peptida. Kolesterol (dan juga peptide) kemudian dikeluarkan dari lisosom ke dalam sitosol untuk dapat digunakan dalam proses sintesis membrane baru.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Ini udah laruut malam... atugas biosel baru aja kelar.. :D hoooaaaammh... ngantukkks...

before sleeping... i want to share this one... !!! hope you can understand about this material... "Receptor-mediated Endocytosis" Ini adalah proses yang terjadi di dalam tubuh kita, ketika sel tubuh menyerap kolesterol dari makanan yang kita makan... :D tau kan makanan yang mengandung kolesterol?? hmmm, coto makassar is one of the representative!!1 :D nite..!!! nice dream!! :D

Tanadoang Dance

I just want to keep my memory.. I was 14 years old and It was my first experience in joining a National Event of Indonesia. The event called "Parade tari Nusantara" at Taman mini Indonesia Indah.

PENDEKATAN DAN MODEL PENGEMBANGAN KURIKULUM

A. Pendekatan Pengembangan Kurikulum
Pendekatan dapat diartikan sebagai titik tolak atau sudut pandang seseorang terhadap suatu proses tertentu. Pendekatan pengembangan kurikulum menunjuk pada titik tolak atau sudut pandang secara umum tentang proses pengembangan kurikulum menunjuk pada titik tolak atau sudut pandang secara umum tentang proses pengembangan kurikulum. Pengembangan kurikulum mempunyai makna yang cukup luas. Menurut sukmadinata, pengembangan kurikulum bisa berarti penyusunan kurikulum yang sama sekali baru (curiculum constraction), bisa juga menyempurnakan kurikulum yang sudah ada (curiculum improvement). Selanjutnya, beliau juga menjelaskan, pada satu sisi pengembangan kurikulum berarti menyusun seluruh perangkat kurikulum mulai dari dasar-dasar kurikulum, struktur dan sebaran mata pelajaran, garis-garis besar program pengjaran, sampai dengan pedoman-pedoman pelaksanaan (macro curiculum).

Dilihat dari cakupan pengembangannya apakah curiculum construction atau curiculum improvement, ada dua pendekatan yang dapat diterapkan dalam pengembangan kurikulum. Pertama, pendekatan Top Down atau pendekatan administratif, yaitu pendekatan dengan sistem komando dari atas ke bawah; dan kedua adalah pendekatan grass root, atau pengembangan kurikulum yang diawali oleh inisiatif dari bawah lalu disebarluaskan pada tingkat atau skala yang lebih luas, dengan istilah singkat sering dinamakan pengembangan kurikulum dari bawah ke atas.

A. Pendekatan Top Down
Dikatakan pendekatan Top Down, disebabkan pengembangan kurikulum muncul atas inisiatif para pejabat pendidikan atau para administrator atau dari para pemegang kebijakan (pejabat) pendidikan seperti dirjen atau kepala Kantor Wilayah. Selanjutnya dengan menggunakan semacam garis komando, pengembangan kurikulum menetes ke bawah. Oleh karena dimulai dari atas itulah, pendekatan ini juga dinamakan line staff model. Biasanya pendekatan ini banyak dipakai di negara-negara yang memiliki sistem pendidikan sentralisasi.

Dilihat dari cakupan pengembangannya, pendekatan top down bisa dilakukan baik untuk menyusun kurikulum yang benar-benar baru (curiculum constraction) ataupun untuk penyempurnaan kurikulum yang sudah ada (kurikulum improvement).

Prosedur kerja atau proses pengembangan kurikulum model ini dilakukan kira-kira sebagai berikut:
1. Langkah pertama, dimulai dengan pembentukan tim pengarah oleh pejabat pendidikan. Anggota tim biasanya terdiri dari pejabat yang ada di bawahnya, seperti para pengawas pendidikan, ahli kurikulum, ahli disiplin ilmu, dan bisa juga ditambah dengan para tokoh dari dunia kerja. Tugas tim pengarah ini adalah merumuskan konsep dasar, garis-garis besar kebijakan, menyiapkan rumusan falsafah, dan tujuan umum pendidikan.
2. Langkah kedua, adalah menyusun tim atau kelompok kerja untuk menjabarkan kebijakan atau rumusan-rumusan yang telah disusun oleh tim pengarah. Anggota kelompok kerja ini adalah para ahli kurikulum, para ahli disiplin ilmu dari perguruan tinggi, ditambah dengan guru-guru senior yang dianggap sudah berpengalaman. Tugas pokok tim ini adalah merumuskan tujuan-tujuan yang lebih operasional dari tujuan-tujuan umum, memilih dan menyusun sequence bahan pelajaran, memilih strategi pengajaran, dan alat atau petunjuk evaluasi, serta menyusun pedoman-pedoman pelaksanaan kurikulum bagi guru.
3.Langkah ketiga, apabila kurikulum sudah selesai disusun oleh tim atau kelompok kerja, selanjutnya hasilnya diserahkan kepada tim perumus untuk dikaji dan diberi catatan-catatan atau direvisi. Bila dianggap perlu, kurikulum itu di uji cobakan dan dievaluasi kelayakannya, oleh suatu tim yang ditunjuk oleh para administrator. Hasil uji coba itu digunakan sebagai bahan penyempurnaan.
4.Keempat, para administrator selanjutnya memerintahkan kepada setiap sekolah untuk mengimplementasikan kurikulum yang telah tersusun itu.

Dari langkah-langkah pengembangan seperti yang telah dikemukakan di atas, maka tampak jelas bahwa inisiatif penyempurnaan atau perubahan kurikulum dimulai oleh pemegang kebijakan kurikulum, atau para pejabat yang berhubungan dengan pendidikan; sedangkan tugas guru hanya sebagai pelaksana kurikulum yang telah ditentukan oleh para pemegang kebijakan.

2. Pendekatan Grass Roots
Pada model grass roots, inisiatif pengembangan kurikulum dimulai dari lapangan atau dari guru-guru sebagai implementator, kemudian menyebar pada lingkungan yang lebih luas, makanya pengembangan kurikulum ini disebut juga pengembangan kurikulum dari bawah ke atas. Oleh karena sifatnya yang demikian, maka pendekatan ini lebih banyak digunakan dalam penyempurnaan kurikulum (curiculum improvemnt), walaupun dalam skala yang terbatas mungkin juga digunakan dalam pengembangan kurikulum baru (curiculum constraction).

Sumber: Sanjaya, Wina. "Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran."

Experiment 1

APPROVAL SHEET

This complete report of animal development which was entitled “Reproductive Cycle” was written by:
Name : Andi Citra Pratiwi
Reg. No. : 091404170
Group :
If this report is checked by the assistant and the coordinator of assistant, so this report is accepted.




Makassar, October 2010
Coordinator of Assistant Assistant




Known by
Lecture of Responsibility

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
In female, there is a cycle which happens continuously to produce gamete and their offspring. Such a cycle is known as reproductive cycle. The reproductive cycle happens in an adult female, includes the physical and physiological changes of reproductive organs such as ovary, uterus, vagina, and controlled by hormones. The kind of reproductive cycle is estrus cycle and menstruation cycle. Estrus cycle is the reproductive cycle which appears in an adult female animal which is not pregnant and non primate. Meanwhile, menstruation cycle is a reproductive cycle which appears in an adult female primate. The menstrual cycle is the way a women’s body gets ready for the possibility of pregnancy each month. A cycle is counted from the first day of one period (menstruation) to the first day of next. An average cycle is 28 days, but anywhere from 23 to 35 days is normal. The day that bleeding starts is counted as the first day of a given cycle. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released by the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the ovaries. The cycle has four stages, they are the menstrual phase, the preovulatory phase, the ovulation phase, and the postovulatory phase.
Why should we learn about the reproduction cycle? It is important for us to understand about the process which appears in the preparation to do reproduction and resulting the offspring. This knowledge will help us to understand more about our self. It will also be able to be a basic for us to learn more about reproduction process and physiological process in our body. We will be able to understand the kind of hormones which serves to fasten the maturation of eggs. It also enable us to know more about the complex structures of reproductive organs and the specifics function of each organs which take action in the reproductive cycle. Hence, it will be a wise decision for us to do the experiment which is entitled “Reproductive Cycle”.
B. Purpose
1. Distinguish the cells which are resulted from vagina lavage process.
2. Determine the cycle phase which is being undergone by the mature female Mus musculus.
C. Benefit
1. The students will be able to distinguish the kinds of cells that can occur at the whole phase of cycle.
2. The students will have a capability of determining the cycle phase which occur at the fertile female.

CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Reproductive cycle is the cyclic change which occurs at the reproductive system (ovary, oviduct, uterus, and vagina) of fertile female which is not pregnant, which shows the connections one another. Reproductive cycle at primate mammals is known as menstrual cycle. Meanwhile, reproductive cycle which occurs at non primate animal is known as estrous cycle. Estrous cycle is characterized by the existence of estrous (desire) which cause the female being repressive at the male, and copulation will be fertile because ovulation is being occurred in ovary and its uterus is in the best condition for implantation. From one estrous to the next estrous is called one estrous cycle. Estrous cycle of Mus musculus is about 4 or 5 days (Adnan, et al. 2010).
In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). The menstrual cycle is a series of physiological changes that can occur in fertile females. Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the uterus through the vagina) occurs primarily in humans and some animals such as chimpanzees. Females of other species of placental mammal undergo estrous cycles, in which the endometrium is completely reabsorbed by the animal (covert menstruation) at the end of its reproductive cycle. The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase; although some sources use a different set of phases: menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. The length of each phase varies from woman to woman and cycle to cycle, though the average menstrual cycle is 28 days. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation (Wikipedia. 2010).
Most of vertebrate, except primate, their desire to receive the male is limited at the whole phase which is known as estrous phase. During estrous phase, mature females are prepared physically and physiologically to receive the male, and structural changes occur in female sexual accessory organ. Monoestrous animals finish one estrous phase each year, meanwhile polyestrous animals finish two or more estrous cycle in a year if they are not be disturbed by pregnancy. Estrous cycle is the reproductive cycle which occurs in non primate mature female that is not pregnant. At Mus musculus, estrous cycle consists of several main phase, they are: diestrous phase, proestrous phase, estrous phase, and metestrous phase. Diestrous phase is characterized by the existence of a few epithelial cells which has a deep nucleus and a lot of leucocytes. This phase is about 55 hours. Proestrous phase is characterized by the existence of epithelial cells which has a round nucleus, and leucocyte is just a few or even nothing. This phase is about 25 hours. Estrous phase is characterized by the existence of a great number of keratinized epithelial cells, and several epithelial cells which has a degenerated nucleus. This phase is about 25 hours. Metestrous phase is the phase which is characterized by the existence of a great number of keratinized epithelial cells and leucocytes are either. This phase is about 8 hours (Adnan. 1995).
Female house mice have an estrous cycle that is 4–6 days long, with estrus itself lasting less than a day. If several females are held together under crowded conditions they will often not have an estrus at all. If they are then exposed to male urine, they will become estrous after 72 hours. Following copulation, female mice will normally develop a vaginal plug which prevents further copulation. This plug stays in place for some 24 hours. The gestation period is about 19–21 days, and they give birth to a litter of 3-14 young (average 6-8). One female can have some 5-10 litters per year, so their population can increase very quickly. Breeding occurs throughout the year (however, animals living in the wild don't reproduce in the colder months, even though they don't hibernate). The newborn are blind and without fur. Fur starts to grow some three days after birth and the eyes open one to two weeks after birth. Females reach sexual maturity at about 6 weeks and males at about 8 weeks, but both can breed as early as five weeks (Wikipedia. 2010).
The phases of estrous cycle can be identified by observing the sytology of vagina which can be seen by using light microscope. It is able to help us determine the phase which is occur at the organism which is observed. When the animals are not in estrous cycle, it means that they are not active sexually. All female mammals, except female primate, the copulation just be able to occurs at certain period in each estrous cycle. When the female is physically and physiologically ready to accept the male, the female is in a completely different physiologically condition compared with all the rest phases (Adnan. 2010).
Reproduction in mammals is a closely orchestrated process wich requires the coordinated preparation of many tissues in the body of the female. Not only must an ovum be liberated from the ovary, the tissues of the female reproductive tract must be ready to transport both eggs and sperm to a common site when fertilization can occur. In the event of fertilization, the early embryos must be carried to the portion of the uterus that is prepared both to receive an embryo and to meet its nutritional requirements throughout the duration of pregnancy. In the behavioral realm, the female must signal to the male her readiness for copulation, and the male in turn must be ready to respond. Most of the preparations for reproduction are a cyclic nature. The changes in structural and functional characteristics of both male and female reproductive tissues are mediated by hormones, often interacting in tightly controlled feedback loops. Originally the term estrus referred merely to the existence of a period of strong sexual desire made evident through behavior, but it has become evident that estrous occurs close to the time of ovulation and that the characteristic behavior is simply and external indication that all the complicated internal mechanisms of reproduction are ready to become functional. If pregnancy does not occur at this time, regressive changes follow and another period of preparation must ensue before conditions are again favorable for reproduction. This repeated series of changes is known as the estrous or sexual cycle. In the absence of pregnancy its phases are (1) a short time of complete preparedness for reproduction occompanied by ovulation and increased sexual desire (estrous), (2) period during which the fruitless preparation for pregnancy undergo regression (postestrum or metestrum) , and (3) a period of rest (diestrum) followed by (4) a period of active preparatory changes (proestrum) leading up to the next estrous, when everything is readiness for reproduction (Carlson, 1958).

CHAPTER III
INTRODUCTION

A. Time and Place
Day/ date : Tuesday, November 2nd 2010
Time : 16.00 until 18.00
Place : At the 3rd floor of Biology Laboratory, Mathematic and
B. Tool and Material
1. Tools
a. Microscope
b. Drop pipette
c. Object Glass
d. Deck glass
2. Materials
a. Not pregnant mature female (Mus musculus)
b. Physiology Nacl 0,9%
c. Aquades
d. Alcohol 70%
e. Blue Methyl 1%
C. Work Procedure
1. Put the drop pipette which had been given alcohol 70% to the vagina of Musmusculus.
2. Sprayed NaCl 0,9% to the vagina of Mus musculus by using drop pipette, until the solution in the drop pipette looked turbid.
3. Put a drop of turbid solution from the vagina of Mus musculus on the object glass, than close with the deck glass.
4. Observes the specimen through the microscope.
5. Drew the appearance which was found.

CHAPTER IV
OBSERVATION RESULT
A. Observation Result
Diestrous Phase



1. Epithelial cells which has a deep nucleus.
2. Leucocytes.
Proestrous Phase



1. epithelial cells which has a round nucleus.
2. leucocyte.



Estrous Phase





1. Keratinized epithelial cells.
2. Epithelial cells which has a degenerated nucleus.

Metestrous Phase





1. Keratinized epithelial cells
2. Leucocytes are either.


B. Discussion
At the experiment of reproductive cycle of Mus musculus, the reproductive phase which occurs at the female Mus musculus which is observed is estrous phase. It because the cells appearance under the microscope shows a large number of keratinized epithelial cells, a few epithelial cells which lack of nucleus, and nothing leucocyte. During estrous phase, mature females are prepared physically and physiologically to receive the male. However, we should realized that at the reproductive cycle of Mus musculus, there is not only one phase, but there are four phases which occurs in each cycle. The four phases of estrous cycle which occurs at Mus musculus are as follows:
1. Diestrous phase
Diestrous phase is characterized by the existence of a few epithelial cells which has a deep nucleus and a lot of leucocytes. This phase is about 55 hours (Adnan, 1995). Diestrus is characterised by the activity of the corpus luteum that produces progesterone. In the absence of pregnancy the diestrus phase (also termed pseudo-pregnancy) terminates with the regression of the corpus luteum. The lining in the uterus is not shed, but will be reorganised for the next cycle (Wikipedia, 2010).
2. Proestrous phase
Proestrous phase is characterized by the existence of epithelial cells which has a round nucleus, and leucocyte is just a few or even nothing. This phase is about 25 hours (Adnan,1995). At proestrous phase, one or several follicles of the ovary are starting to grow. Their number is specific for the species. Typically this phase can last as little as one day or as long as 3 weeks, depending on the species. Under the influence of estrogen the lining in the uterus (endometrium) starts to develop. Some animals may experience vaginal secretions that could be bloody. The female is not yet sexually receptive (Wikipedia, 2010).
3. Estrous phase
Estrous phase is characterized by the existence of a great number of keratinized epithelial cells, and several epithelial cells which has a degenerated nucleus. This phase is about 25 hours. (Adnan, 1995). Estrus refers to the phase when the female is sexually receptive. Under regulation by gonadotropic hormones, ovarian follicles are maturing and estrogen secretions exert their biggest influence. She then exhibits a sexually receptive behavior, a situation that may be signaled by visible physiologic changes. A signal trait of estrus is the lordosis reflex, in which the animal spontaneously elevates her hindquarters. In some species, the labia are reddened. Ovulation may occur spontaneously in some species (e.g. cow), while in others it is induced by copulation (e.g. cat). If there is no copulation in an induced ovulator, estrus may continue for many days, followed by 'interestrus,' and the estrus phase starts again until copulation and ovulation occur (Wikipedia, 2010).
4. Metestrous phase
Metestrous phase is the phase which is characterized by the existence of a great number of keratinized epithelial cells and leucocytes are either. This phase is about 8 hours (Adnan. 1995). During this phase, the signs of estrogen stimulation subside and the corpus luteum starts to form. The uterine lining begins to secrete small amounts of progesterone. In some animals bleeding may be noted due to declining estrogen levels (Wikipedia, 2010).





CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion
1. The cells type which are resulted from vagina's lavage are as follows:
a. Diestrous phase : a few epithelial cells which has a deep nucleus and a lot of leucocytes.
b. Proestrous phase : epithelial cells which has a round nucleus, and leucocyte is just a few or even nothing.
c. Estrous phase : a great number of keratinized epithelial cells, and several epithelial cells which has a degenerated nucleus.
d. Metestrous phase : a great number of keratinized epithelial cells and leucocytes are either.
2. The cycle phase which is being undergone by the adult female Mus musculus is estrous phase.
B. Suggestion
Before doing this experiment, it will be better for the apprentice to take a note about some suggestions below:
1. Learn more about estrous cycle before doing this experiment.
2. Learn about the experiment procedure before doing such an experiment.
3. Be careful when spraying the solution into the vagina of Mus musculus.






BIBLIOGRAPHY


Anonymousa. 2010. Menstrual Cycle. Http://Wikipedia.com. Accessed at October 10th 2010.

Anonymousb. 2010. House Mouse. Http://wikipedia.com. Accessed at October 10th 2010.

Adnan. 2010. Perkembangan Hewan. Makassar: FMIPA UNM.
Adnan. Halifah Pagarra. 1995. Biologi Perkembangan. Makassar: FMIPA UNM.
Adnan. et al. 2010. Penuntun Praktikum Perkembangan Hewan. Makassar: FMIPA
UNM.

Carlson, Bruce M. 1958. "Patten's Foundations of Embryology". USA: McGraw-Hill












Menstrual cycle
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Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a series of physiological changes that can occur in fertile females. Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the uterus through the vagina) occurs primarily in humans and some animals such as chimpanzees.[1] Females of other species of placental mammal undergo estrous cycles, in which the endometrium is completely reabsorbed by the animal (covert menstruation) at the end of its reproductive cycle. This article focuses on the human menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle, under the control of the endocrine system, is necessary for reproduction. It is commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase; although some sources use a different set of phases: menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.[2] The length of each phase varies from woman to woman and cycle to cycle, though the average menstrual cycle is 28 days.[3] Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding. Hormonal contraception interferes with the normal hormonal changes with the aim of preventing reproduction.
Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of oestrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) slow then stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles atrophy and die). Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovum, or egg in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the egg only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining and egg in a process termed menstruation.
In the menstrual cycle, changes occur in the female reproductive system as well as other systems (which lead to breast tenderness or mood changes, for example). A woman's first menstruation is termed menarche, and occurs typically around age 12. The end of a woman's reproductive phase is called the menopause, which commonly occurs somewhere between the ages of 45 and 55.








House mouse
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
House mouse
The house mouse (Mus musculus) is a small rodent, a mouse, one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus. As a wild animal the house mouse mainly lives associated with humans, causing damage to crops and stored food. The house mouse has been domesticated as the pet or fancy mouse, and as the laboratory mouse which is one of the most important model organisms in biology and medicine. It is by far the most commonly used genetically altered laboratory mammal.[2]
Life cycle and reproduction
Female house mice have an estrous cycle that is 4–6 days long, with estrus itself lasting less than a day. If several females are held together under crowded conditions they will often not have an estrus at all. If they are then exposed to male urine, they will become estrous after 72 hours. Male house mice court females by emitting characteristic ultrasonic calls in the 30 kHz - 110 kHz range. The calls are most frequent during courtship when the male is sniffing and following the female; however, the calls continue after mating has begun at which time the calls are coincident with mounting behaviour. Males can be induced to emit these calls by female pheromones. The vocalizations appear to be different in different individuals and have been compared to birdsongs because of their complexity.[16] While females have the capability to produce ultrasonic calls, they typically do not do so during mating behaviour. Following copulation, female mice will normally develop a vaginal plug which prevents further copulation. This plug stays in place for some 24 hours. The gestation period is about 19–21 days, and they give birth to a litter of 3-14 young (average 6-8). One female can have some 5-10 litters per year, so their population can increase very quickly. Breeding occurs throughout the year (however, animals living in the wild don't reproduce in the colder months, even though they don't hibernate). The newborn are blind and without fur. Fur starts to grow some three days after birth and the eyes open one to two weeks after birth. Females reach sexual maturity at about 6 weeks and males at about 8 weeks, but both can breed as early as five weeks. House mice usually live under a year in the wild. This is due to a high level of predation and exposure to harsh environments. In protected environments, however, they often live two to three years. The Methuselah Mouse Prize is a competition to breed or engineer extremely long-lived laboratory mice. As of 2005[update], the record holder was a genetically engineered mouse that lived for 1819 days; nearly five years. Another record holder that was kept in a stimulating environment but did not receive any genetic, pharmacological or dietary treatment lived for 1551 days; over four years.